Inside the voice (Glossary & further reading)

Glossary

Acid reflux: if stomach acid and enzymes enter the oesophagus (mainly during sleep), they may cause heartburn or indigestion. If the acid travels all the way up the oesophagus into the throat, it can irritate the larynx, causing throat-clearing, coughing, pain, voice problems and other symptoms. Acid reflux is caused by a weak valve at the top of the stomach and is exacerbated in sufferers by late eating and spicy foods. Treatment may include raising the head of the bed, lifestyle changes and prescribed medicine.

Aspirate onset: voicing that starts with audible air escaping before the tone begins (eg. ‘ha’).

Atmospheric irritants: airborne particles or pollutants that, when breathed in, cause irritation. House and chalk dust, pollens, spirit-based art materials, fumes and smoke are all common culprits.

Breathy tone: a vocal sound that occurs when the vocal folds aren’t sufficiently closed, causing a continual stream of air to pass between them.

Clear tone: an efficient sound that is neither breathy nor constricted.

Constriction (of the false vocal folds): a narrowing of the airway caused by the false vocal folds. The constriction commonly upsets the normal vibration of the true vocal folds, causing abrasion and vocal damage in the long term. In small degrees it gives harshness to the vocal quality; in larger degrees it sounds like someone voicing whilst straining to lift a heavy weight.

Creak onset: voicing that, when it starts, sounds like a creaking door. It is created by loose, irregular vibration of the vocal folds.

Creaky tone: irregular beating of the vocal folds, often caused by tension in the larynx and resulting in a sound like a door creaking open.

Cyst: a fluid-filled mucosal duct that can occur in many places in the body, including on the vocal folds.

Diaphragm: the dome-shaped muscle that separates the lung cavity from the contents of the abdomen (stomach, liver, intestines, etc). It is the primary muscle involved in breathing in; when it engages, it flattens, thereby lowering the bottom of the lung cavity and drawing air into the lungs. On the out-breath, it relaxes.

Dynamic range: a range of loudness or intensity in sound.

Dysphonia: any disorder that affects the voice.

Epiglottis: a flap of cartilage at the top of the larynx that closes over during swallowing to prevent food entering the trachea.

Exhalatory/inhalatory muscles: respiratory muscles used to control the airflow in and out of the body.

Falsetto: a method of voice production where the vocal range is extended upwards through stiffening and lengthening of the vocal folds. It is characteristically airy and brittle, but with training it can be made more powerful. Classical countertenors use this style of singing, as do some male pop singers. Female use of falsetto is less common, but still possible.

Frequency (of sound): the number of vibrations per second, measured in Hertz (Hz).

Fundamental frequency: the basic frequency of a given note.

Glottal onset: voicing that starts with a small click (as in the exclamation ‘uh-oh!’) the purpose of which is often to emphasise the following vowel. It is created by the vocal folds coming together before the airflow starts.

Harmonics/partials: frequencies in the sound that are multiples of the fundamental frequency (eg. the fundamental frequency of middle C is 262 Hz, but it also has harmonics at 524 Hz, 786 Hz, 1048 Hz, etc.).

Hydration: the level of water within the body. Insufficient hydration causes a dry surface of the vocal folds, as well as less effective movement and repair within the cells of the vocal folds. This impairs the vocal folds’ ability to voice efficiently. Adults require two to three litres of liquid intake a day (including liquid in food). Children require one to two litres. The best way to monitor your level of hydration is to make sure your urine is pale.

Intercostal muscles: muscles situated between the ribs. The external intercostals aid inhalation, and the internal intercostals aid exhalation.

Larynx (voicebox): the tube-like organ located at the top of the windpipe, containing the vocal folds. Its primary function is to stop anything other than air from entering the lungs. Its secondary function is to trap air in the lungs, enabling the abdominal muscles to push when high exertion is required. Its third function is to make sound.

Motherese: a form of speech used instinctively by parents when speaking to their babies. Features include a higher pitch range, extended vowels and a greater pitch variation.

Nodules: a mass of fibrous tissue, similar to callouses. They are caused by the vocal folds abrading each other due to poor vocal use.

Oesophagus/gullet: the tube from the throat to the stomach.

Onset: the start of any sound.

Organic vocal illness: vocal illness caused by structural problems (inflammation or growths in the larynx) or neurological problems.

Pharynx: the cavity at the back of the nose and mouth, connecting them to the larynx and oesophagus.

Phlegm: mucus secreted in the larynx and airways, particularly during illness. Can become thickened by dehydration.

Pitch range: a range of frequencies in sound.

Polyp: a small, benign growth on the vocal folds, associated with healing after vocal trauma.

Registers (‘head’ and ‘chest’ voices): different parts of the range of the human voice. ‘Chest’ register has often been used to refer to the lower range and is characterised by richness of sound. ‘Head’ register has been used to describe the upper vocal range and is characterised by its more emotional, sob-like quality. The ‘chest’ and ‘head’ terminology reveals the historic (but inaccurate) idea of different places of resonance for different registers. Research has revealed that the registers are actually created by differing vocal fold vibration patterns.

Resonance/formants: a boosting of certain harmonics due to the shape of the pharynx and oral cavities. By manipulating the shape of the vocal tract, we can change the resonances.

Respiratory system: the airways, lungs and muscles that control breathing (including, among others, the diaphragm, intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles).

Simultaneous onset: voicing that starts gently, without any air escaping first. It can be achieved by thinking of starting with a silent ‘h’. The vocal folds are brought together at the same time as the airflow starts.

Singers’ formant: a superboosted resonance that our ears are very sensitive to, created by manipulating the shape of the pharynx. Also known as ‘twang’, ‘blade’, ‘ping’ or ‘squillo’.

Soft palate: a valve that closes off the nose during swallowing, making sure that food and drink only go downwards. The soft palate also diverts airflow from the larynx, either through the mouth or nose, or both. It can be seen as the rear-most part of the roof of the mouth.

Supported sound: efficient voicing, produced with a stable vocal set-up and appropriate airflow and air pressure.

Tidal breathing: breathing when the body is at rest, without voicing.

Timbre: the ‘fingerprint’ of sound, that allows us to identify between, for example, different instruments. It’s defined by the distribution and intensity of harmonics in the sound.

Trachea/windpipe: the tube from the larynx to the lungs.

Uvula: the dangly bit at the back of your mouth, which hangs from the soft palate. It has little purpose in speaking or singing in English.

Vocal folds: the membranous tissues that provide the valve function of the larynx. When brought together, the false vocal folds totally close off the airway (also secreting mucus to help keep the true vocal folds moist). In singing and speaking, the false vocal folds should be open. When the true vocal folds are brought together, the air bursts through in little pulses, hundreds of times per second. This vibration is the source of the sound in the voice.

Vocal loading: a measure of strain on the voice. Contributory factors include amount of voice use (time), level of voice use (loudness) and anxiety levels.

Vocal tract: the larynx, pharynx and oral and nasal cavities.

Vocalise: making sound with the vocal folds (eg. speaking or singing).

Voice Clinic: a clinic staffed by voice-related health professionals. It will comprise of at least a phoniatrician (an Ear, Nose and Throat consultant specialising in the voice) and a speech and language therapist. It may also include a singing teacher, a voice teacher, a physiotherapist or an osteopath.

Further reading

There are many excellent books on the science and medicine of voice. These are some of the more accessible ones:

• Choral Pedagogy, Brenda Smith, Robert T. Sataloff, 2nd Ed. 2006, Plural Publishing.

• The Child as Musician, ed. McPherson, 2006, OUP.

• Dynamics of the Singing Voice, M. Bunch Dayme, 5th Ed. 2009, SpringerWienNewYork.

• Singing and Teaching Singing: A holistic approach, Janice L. Chapman, 2006, Plural Publishing.

• Voice Work: Art and Science in Changing Voices, Christina Shewell, 2009, Wiley-Blackwell.

Also recommended, of more general interest:

• Music Teacher’s Companion, Paul Harris & Richard Crozier, 2000, ABRSM.

• The Singer’s Handbook: A guide for aspiring singers, Mary King and Anthony Legge, 2007, Faber Music.

• The Teacher’s Survival Guide, Angela Thody, Barbara Gray, Derek Bowden, with Graham Welch, 2000, Continuum.

• Teaching Kids to Sing, Kenneth Phillips, 1992, Schirmer Books.

Useful websites

The British Voice Association is a charitable organisation, dedicated to bringing together singing teachers, speech therapists, voice doctors and researchers to champion the latest research and thinking in the voice world. As well as organising study days and conferences, the organisation produces leaflets on various voice disorders that can be downloaded from its website. It also operates a free Ask the BVA email service, where BVA members and the general public can obtain answers to their voice problems.